NEW YORK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION and PROFFESSIONAL SERVICES
Master of Science in Instructional Technology
In Collaboration with the (UFT)NYC/TCC
EDPC 690 - Research Methods
Fall 2006
Course Syllabus
Robert S. Slotnick, Ph. D.
Professor's office hours, telephone, e-mail, web page, and address:
Tuesdays and Wednesdays, 3:00 to 4:00. Before and after class and/or by appointment.
(o) 212-261-1554; 1541; e-mail: rslotnic@nyit.edu or rslotnick@earthlink.net
web page: http://iris.nyit.edu/~rslotnic ;
NYIT, 21 West 60th St., Information Hall, Room 227, New York, NY 10023
Room and Course Calendar:
Research Methods meets Wednesdays from 4:30 to 6:45. Classes meet in MC61 721. (New building on W. 61 St. room 721, 7th fl. Please get up to date photo ID. Can be obtained in 21 W. 60th St., Information Hall. Ask Security for room number to get ID. Access to class may be blocked if you do not have a current photo id.) Calendar: 9/6, 13, 20, 27, 10/4, 11, 18, 25, 11/1, 8, 15, 22NoClass, 29, 12/6, 13LastClass; All assignments due 12/6.
Course Description: EDPC 690.M01 Research Principles and PracticesThis course presents a systematic survey of current research principles, methods, and practices in the fields of education and learning technologies. Course content will focus on the role of research in acquiring, evaluating, and disseminating information, methods of constructing hypotheses, developing research designs and describing procedures for observation and meaurement. Other topics will include critical evaluation of research, program evaluation, understanding the case study approach, analyzing data and writing the research report.
A major theme of the course will involve the analysis of the impact of computers on education and learning in all its facets. The use of the computer as a tool to enrich learning outcomes will be reviewed. Major computer education studies will be evaluated and innovative programs will be discussed as potential models for adoption. Using principles learned in the class students will develop technology-based applied research projects.
Required Texts:
Patten, M. 2000. Understanding research methods. Latest Edition. Pyrczak Publishing, P O Box 39731, Los Angeles, CA 90039; ISBN 1 - 884585 - 22 - 1 The text may be purchased at: NYIT bookstore (Barnes and Noble) at 1855 Broadway, NY, NY 10023; tel. 212- 261-1551.Companion Website:
http://www.prenhall.com/gay
Look at general features and specific activities per chapter.
Recommended:
Gay, L.R. & Airasian, Peter 2000. Educational research latest ed. Merrill/Prentice Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN 0 - 13- 096103 - 5
Sometimes text books can be purchased cheaper online than in a book store. Two good suggestions are: http://www.addall.com and http://www.half.com.
Other Recommended and Interesting Texts:
Basch, Reva 1999. Researching online for dummies: A reference for the rest of us. IDG Books
Dick, W. & Carey, L. Latest edition. The systematic design of instruction. Harper Collins Pub. Co.
Fraenkel, Jack, R. & Wallen, Norman, E. Latest ed. How to design and evaluate research in education.
New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Pub. Co.Moore, D.S. 1996. Statistics and concepts and controversies, 4th ed. W H Freeman and Co., NY.
ISBN: 0 7167 2863 - XPatten, M. 2001. Questionnaire research: A practical guide. Pyrczak Publishing, P O Box 39731, Los Angeles, CA 90039; ISBN 1-884585-32-9
Reiser, R. & Dick, W. 1996. Instructional planning: A guide for teachers. 2nd edition. Allyn & Bacon. A Simon & Schuster Co. Needham, MA ISBN: 0-205-16614-8 (Curriculum Model/Instructional Systems Design)
Sagan, C. 1995. The demon haunted world: Science as a candle in the dark. Random House: New York.
ISBN: 0 394 53512 X1. Attendance and class participation are required and contribute to your grade.
2. Computer and Library Literature Search. Select a topic of interest, that may involve technology, may be relevant for your class and that can be used for your field project report. ERIC Documents are the best source for a review of education-related literature. ERIC is directly available on the Internet. Visit NYIT Library for a list of Internet databases. NYIT databases include Wilson's Full Text Retrieval and First Search. See Text, Ch 2 for additional resources. Use Google to search for wider range of resources and use ERIC for more narrow focus topics.
3. Review of the Literature. Research topics can originate as problems in your classroom that interest you and require attention and a solution. Other topics may arise from current topics of interest in the research literature. Once a topic is selected and the articles obtained, write a Review of the Literature. The Review should provide information on what was done using a sufficient number of articles, about 10 - 25 depending on the topic, how it was done (design and methodology), what the results tell us about the problem and what you are proposing to do next. The review is a thorough analysis of what is known about your topic of interest. The articles obtained through ERIC provide research and background information on your topic.
4. Multiple exercises. Work on multiple classroom and homework assignments. Work will be assigned on: ways of knowing (scientific method), Internet literature review, constructing survey questionnaire items, conducting and analyzing interviews, learning statistical tests, creating charts as a way to visualize data: frequency polygon, pie chart, line graph, bar graph and conduct a correlation and display it on a scatter plot.
5. Institutional Review Board (IRB). Students will prepare a 2 - 3 page report on the role of the IRB. The IRB reviews research for ethics, deception, harm to participants and invasion of privacy. Your research report will review different aspects of IRB concerns. Consider whether or not we would be better off or worse off if certain classic experiments, such as Milgram's Obedience studies and Zimbardo's Prison experiment were never conducted.
6. Research Proposal. A complete research proposal, with all research components identified and elaborated, will be submitted near the end of the semester. It will include a research question and a methodology for answering that question. The student will choose the research methodology best suited to the research question and resources available. See Hand-out #19 for additional information.
School-based Action Research is practioner research used to improve teaching practice. It aims to find and correct problems of practice, that is, problems to research grow out of the school experience. Such problems can involve methods of discipline, control of the classroom, improving learning in the classroom, integrating technology into the classroom, involving parents with their child's performance, and so on. There is a broad range of quantitative and qualitative data collection approaches in action research. Practioner/Researchers can administer and score questionnaire tests, achievement measures, conduct interviews, and observe and measure behavior in the classroom. See Text Ch 20.
Diversity
Students investigate individual differences in performance and identify possible contributing factors including physical, emotional, sociological, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic differences. In developing intervention models for the learner, candidates reflect on the implications of these variables and design instructional approaches which will maximize learner strengths. In selecting a research topic, students may incorporate the impact of race, ethnicity, emotional and physical challenges, and cultural and linguistic differences into their research. Diversity issues can enrich and make your topic more salient.
Grading Policy:
1. Attendance and class participation 20%
2. Work on multiple classroom and homework projects 20%
3. IRB Report 20%
4. Questionnaire & Interview 20%
5. Review of the Literature & Submission of Research Proposal 20%
Ground Rules:
In order to receive an "A" grade, a project must be above average in form and content. An "A" project must show
mastery of the technology and content and some insight into learning, design and technology components. Length or effort alone is not sufficient to merit an "A." Projects that are entirely satisfactory will be graded as "B." C+ and B+ are recently added grades for graduate education and will be used this semester as appropriate. Students must also show a grasp of research design and mastery of quantitative concepts.Submit all assignments when due. Assignments submitted only at the end of the term will not be accepted or will receive a lower grade.
Using any other persons' work without acknowledgement or proper citation is plagiarism and is not permitted. (Plagiarize: 1. To use and pass off as one's own (the ideas or writings of another). 2. To appropriate for use as one's own passages or ideas from (another).)
Please submit all written work, double-spaced, using a word processed format to make revisions easier.
Written work will be revised until a clearly written, acceptable document is submitted.
Use the APA publication manual as a guide and follow the style used in your text.Incompletes will be given only in extreme circumstances and, when the coursework is completed, the final grade
will not be higher than B, except in unusual cases.You are allowed two excused absences. Additional absences may lead to a reduction in grade or a withdrawal from class.
In addition, coming late is disburbing to other students and the professor. Please do not make it a habit or you will be
asked to leave for that class. If there is a neccessary reason to come late, please speak to me. Lateness will be counted
as 1/2 absence.If you miss class or do not understand some information ask a classmate to share notes. You are responsible for making
up all work.Please be considerate of your fellow classmates; do not leave trash, do not talk during class, do not disturb others.
No eating or drinking in the class.
To receive your grade promptly after the instructor submits it, please access NYIT Connect and follow prompts
to see grade. You need up to date user name and password.
Papers and other assignments cannot be stored at the college; students are responsible for supplying stamped self-addressed envelopes to return all work.
These suggestions are intended to clarify and to expedite class activities. I hope that you find this a positive experience.
I want to make this the best course possible for all students; please tell me what you liked and make comments that you
think will improve this course. Thank you.
Course Objectives:
Upon completion of this course, students will be able to accomplish each of the following objectives:
1. Understand the overall purpose and the basic steps in the research/inquiry process.
2. Read the research literature critically and evaluate results.
3. Know how to construct a hypothesis and define independent, dependent and moderator variables.
4. Construct research designs appropriate to the problem.
5. Analyze data and write a research report.
6. Understand the role of technology in supporting teaching, training, and learning.
7. Use technology to evaluate empirical research.
8. Understand how diversity and technology impact the learning process.Course Topics:
Weeks 1 - 2 Introduction to Educational Resarch
<> Assignment 1: What are the main features of the scientific method? See ScientificMethod2.jpeg in Hand-out #1 for scientific method. What are similarities and differences between empirical research and qualitative research? What does it teach us? What does it teach us about doing science and evaluating evidence? What is the difference between information based on Authority or Tradition vs empirical ways of knowing? Bring web sites. Will discuss in class.
Empirical ways of knowing vs Faith based ways of knowing
Scientific Method- See Google; Search: http://phyun5.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node5.html
View other sci meth web sites.
Historical development of a research paradigm
Nature of scientific inquiry -- ability to be disconfirmed
Approaches to Inquiry: Qualitative vs Quantitative
Basic and Applied Research
Hand-out #1 Ways of Knowing and Scientific Method
Hand-out #2 Review of Literature -- Relevant Research Studies
Search Google.com for Sir Francis Bacon for an historical perspecitve and context for the developing of scientific method, learning, and knowledge.
Understanding Research Methods, Topics 1, 2, 3, 4. Empirical research and Variables.
Preview StatPak. This is a simple statistical analysis program, easy to use, and helpful in doing research. We will review in class.
Excellent web site on sci meth
http://phyun5.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node5.html
Weeks 3 - 4. Selection and Definition of a Problem, Text, Ch 2
Identifying a Research Topic
Selection and Statement of Problem (What is the driving question?)
Review of Literature
Definition, purpose, scope
Identifying your sources
Evaluating your sources
Abstracting
Analyzing, organizing, and reporting the literature
ERIC, Computer Searches, On-line, CD-ROM searches
Searching the WWW
Table 2.4 ERIC on the WWW, pp 58-60: List of ERIC www addresses and specific education content clearinghouses
Formulation of Hypothesis, Characteristics, Types, Stating and Testing the HypothesisFormulating a Hypothesis
Purpose
Making a prediction and checking on the results
Types
Directional hypothesis
Null hypothesisHand-out #3 Searching the Internet and ERIC
Understanding Research Methods, Topics 6, 7, 9. Topic 6 discusses different types of variables and how they are used in ressearch. Topic 7 deals with hypotheses, purposes and questions. It gets behind the major reasons for doing research. Research deals with asking a question and trying to answer that question in a valid manner. Topic 9 distinguishes between quantitative and qualitative research.
*Assignment 2: State an original hypothesis, "express the relationship between two variables, and define those variables in mesurable terms". State the P (participants), X (Independent Variable) and Y (Dependent Variable) in your hypothesis. Develop a question that is of interest to you and which you might be able to test next semester. Required assignment.
Weeks 5 and 6. Selecting a Research Topic: ERIC & NYIT Library Database, Text, Ch 3 Preparing and Evaluating a Research Plan
Browser - Netscape or Explorer
ERIC, http://ericir.syr.edu
Search for articles on your topic in Eric database
Prepare for Review of the LiteratureNYIT Library Data Bases for Research Information
Assignment 3: Describe your review of Internet search. What databases did you use? What topic(s) did you search? What search words did you use? What did you find? Do multiple searches. Change search terms. Did you get information on your topic? Did a new topic emerge? What looks promising? For your assignment annotate your search process, describe your topic and sub-topics. Include some sample print-outs. What journals were cited?
NYIT has many databases for review. See ERIC, E*Subscribe, Wilson Select Plus and First Search.
Many articles are available in full-text version
Discuss orally in class. Develop topic for your literature review. Will discuss selecting a research topic in class.Understanding Research Methods, Topics , 14, 19. Part B, Reviewing Literature, are different topics about identifying a topic, finding information, and writing a compelling narrative that will lead to a research question. Focus on collecting articles and writing a review of the literature. This is your most important assignment for this course. See Lit Rev Assignment at end of syllabus for more information.
Discuss IRB
See Assignment 8 for IRB report at end of syllabus.
Ethics of Research
Informed Consent and Protection from Harm
Deception
Professional and Scientific Responsibility
Concern for other's Welfare
Social Responsibility
<>Review Stat Pak or Excel or Statistics Softwa
Week 7. Action Research in the Schools, Text, Latest Ed. Ch 20
School-based Action Research
Improves teacher practice
Select real world problem
Try to identify and solve problems
Teachers learn new skills
Entire school community has interest in solutionComparison with Other Methods of Research
Pros and Cons of Experimental and non-experimental research
Steps in Action Research
Problem Identification
Data Gathering
Decision Making
Resulting Action
Applications
Validity IssuesDescribe Action Research examples from your experience
How would you go about researching those topics?Understanding Research Methods, Topics 23, 28
Review Stat Pak. Work on sample examples.
Week 8. Selection of a Sample, Text, Ch 4
Types of Sample
Sample Size
Sampling Bias
Types of Tests
Validty, Reliability
Hand-out #5 Sampling and InstrumentationSelection of Measuring Instruments, Text, Ch 5
Types of Variables -- any concept that has at least 2 values
Nominal variables -- categories
Ordinal variables -- rank order
Interval variables -- combines ordinal and nominal. Assume equal intervals between values
Categorical variables -- similar to nominal -- gender, eye color, religion, political party
Quantitative variables -- continuum of values on any variable such as weight, height, IQ, Ach, etc.
Dependent and Independent variables -- dep var is the outcome and ind var is the cause.Understanding Research Methods, Part C, Sampling, Topics 23. Part D, Measurement issues in assessment and validity, Topic 28.
Review Stat Pak or Excel or Statistics Software
Discussion Point: Compare and contrast random sample, stratified sample, and convenience sample. What are independent and dependent variables? What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative measures?
Week 9. Survey Research, Text, Ch 10
Types of Surveys
Self-Report Research
Questionnaire Study
Statement of the Problem
Construction of the Questionnaire
Table 8.1 - Comparison of Descriptive Data Collection
Table 8.2 - Writing Questionnaire Items
Interview Study
Observational ResearchHand-out #6 Descriptive Research (Survey)
*Assignment 4: Construct a Likert Attitude Scale of 9 items on a Major concept, e.g., such as Attitudes toward Computers with 3 sub-concepts, e.g., such as computers and staff training, computers and productivity and computers and student achievement with 3 items each.
Review Stat Pak. Work on sample examples.
Week 10. Experimental research, Ch 9
Experimental Process
Manipulation and Control
Internal and External Validity
Experimental Designs -- Random Sample, IV, Experimental Grp., Control Grp., DV (Outcome) Measure Results
An Example of Experimental Research -- Effects of Word Processing on Sixth Graders Holistic Writing and Revisions
Analyze Research Article in terms of experimental design and educational technology.
Hand-out #7 Experimental Designs
Review Stat Pak. Work on sample examples.
Weeks 11. and 12. Descriptive Statistics, Ch 11
Preparing Data for Analysis
Types of Descriptive Statistics
Graphing Data
Central Tendency
Variability
Normal Curve
Relative Position
Relationship
Calculation for Interval Data
Symbols
Mean
Standard Deviation
Standard Scores
Pearson rHand-out #8 Descriptive Statistics/Inferential Statistics
Assignment 5: Graphing Data, See Text, Ch 14. Reproduce Frequency Distribution, Frequency Polygon, and Pie Chart. Then create your own distribution, polygon, and chart from classroom data. See Hand-out #8 for examples.
Understanding Research Methods, Topics 45, 47
Week 13. Inferential Statistics, Ch 12
Standard Error
Null Hypothesis
Tests of Significance
Type I and Type II
The t Test
ANOVA
Multiple Comparisons
Factorial Analysis of Variance
Analysis of Covariance
Multiple Regression
Chi Square
Assignment 6: Statpak Data Set. Based on Ch 15. See Hand-out #8 for examples. We will select questions in class!! Focus on calculation of z scores and T Scores and explain their meaning.
Review Stat Pak. Work on examples.
Week 14. Correlational Research, Ch 7
Basic Correlational Research Process
Problem Selection
Sample
Design
Review Stat Pak
Hand-out #9 Correlation Research
Review Exam and Results
Student conferences on preparing a research reportAssignment 7: Statpak Data Set based on Hand-out #9. Compute correlation examples. Create visual scatter plot. Explain the relationships and what correlation tells us.
Submission of Research Literature Review and Research Proposal
Week 15. Submission of Research Proposal, Text, Ch 17
Defense of Proposal
What is the problem?
What is the design?
What is the methodology?
Strengths and WeaknessesConclusion and Recommendations
Preparation for Field ProjectAssignment 9: Literature Review &Completion of Proposal. Based on assignment #2, write an -- Introduction, Problem Statement, Literature Review, Hypothesis or Goals and Objectives -- on your research topic. Write a proposal to test your research problem. Focus on Methods, Research Design, and Data Analysis. See Ch 2, p. 44, and Task 2 pp 82- 87 and pp 524 - 528.
List of Assignments:
Understanding Research Methods, Topics 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 14, 19, 23, 28, 32, 37, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50. Read 10 topics, one or two per week. Answer only first set of questions for each topic. Discuss in class.
StatPak Assignments: Mean and SD, Correlation, z and T scores, t-test, Chi Sq, ANOVA Two Groups
Assignment 1: What are the main features of the scientific method? See ScientificMethod2.jpeg in Hand-out #1 for scientific method. What are similarities and differences between empirical research and qualitative research? What does it teach us? What does it teach us about doing science and evaluating evidence? What is the difference between information based on Authority or Tradition vs empirical ways of knowing? Identify web sites. Discuss in class.
*Assignment 2: State an original hypothesis: "express the relationship between two variables, and define those variables in mesurable terms". Analyze the basic characteristics of the hypothesis that makes it a necessary part of the experimental research process. (Formulating, purpose, criteria, and type.) Develop a question that is of interest to you and which you might be able to test next semester.
Assignment 3: Describe your review of Internet search. What databases did you use? What topic(s) did you search? What search words did you use? What did you find? Do multiple searches. Change search terms. Did you get information on your topic? Did a new topic emerge? What looks promising? For your assignment annotate your search process, describe your topic and sub-topics. Include some sample print-outs. What journals were cited?
Discuss orally in class. Develop topic for your literature review.*Assignment 4: Construct a Likert Attitude Scale of 9 items on a major concept such as Attitudes toward Computers with 2 to 3 sub-areas such as computers and financial budget, computers and productivity and computers and achievement with 3 items each. Construct an Interview topic and several questions.
*Assignment 5: Graphing Data, See Text, Ch 14. Reproduce Frequency Distribution, Frequency Polygon, and Pie Chart. Then create your own distribution, polygon, and chart from classroom data. See Hand-out #8 for examples.
*Assignment 6: Statpak Data Set. Based on Ch 15. See Hand-out #8 for examples. We will select questions in class!! Focus on calculation of z scores and T Scores and explain their meaning.
*Assignment 7: Statpak Data Set based on Hand-out #9. Compute correlation examples. Create visual scatter plot. Explain the relationships and what correlation tells us.
*Assignment 8: Institutional Review Board (IRB). Students will prepare a 2 -3 page report on the role of the IRB. The IRB reviews research for ethics, deception, harm to participants and invasion of privacy. Your research report will review different aspects of IRB concerns. Consider whether or not we would be better off or worse off if certain classic experiments, such as Milgram's Obedience studies and Zimbardo's Prison experiment were forbidden.
<>*Assignment 9: Create Interview schedule on a topic of your choosing. Make the topic relevant to your topic. Discuss
questions to ask and how to analyze.
*Assignment 10: Literature Review &Completion of Proposal. Based on assignment #2, write an -- Introduction, Problem Statement, Literature Review, Hypothesis or Goals and Objectives -- on your research topic. Write a proposal to test your research problem. Focus on Methods, Research Design, and Data Analysis. See Ch 2, p. 44, and Task 2 pp 82- 87 and pp 524 - 528. <>* = Required
<> Course Themes, Topics and Activities
Quantitative/Scientific View of Research
1. Scientific Method
2. Mean and SD
3. Z and T standardized scores
4. Correlation
5. Hypothesis: P, IV, DV
6. t-test
Graphs
7. Frequency Distribution
8. Pie Chart
9. Bar Chart
Research Ethics
10. IRB
Literature Review
11. Topic/Resources
12. ERIC Articles
Research Designs
13. School Based Action Research
14. Pre
14. True
15. Quasi
Survey
16. Likert Scale
17. Interview--topic/analysis
Interview
18. Select Topic
19. Formulate Questions
20. Method of Analysis
Journals
Computers in the Schools
Education, Training, Research, and Development
Educational Technology
Electronic Learning
International Journal of Instructional Media
Internet World
Journal of Computing in Childhood Education
Journal of Computing in Teacher Education
Journal of Educational Computing Research -- many relevant articles on computers and surveys.
Journal of Educational Psychology
Journal of Educational Research
Journal of Instruction Delivery Systems
Journal of Technology and Teacher Education
Learning and Leading with Technology
Optical Information Systems
Phi Delta Kappan
Technology and Learning
Technology and Teacher Education Annual
The Computing Teacher
For Discussion of IRB:
Overview of Stanley Milgram's Classic Experiment of Obediance to
Authority
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment
Milgram_experiment.The experimenter (E) convinces the participant
(S) to give what the participant believes are painful electric shocks
to another participant (A), who is actually an actor. Many participants
continued to give shocks despite pleas for mercy from the actor.]]
The '''Milgram experiment'''The [[experiment]] was first described by
[[Stanley Milgram]], a [[psychology|psychologist]] at Yale University]]
in an article titled ''Behavioral study of obedience'' published in the
[[Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology in 1963, and later
summarized in his [[1974]] book ''Obedience
to Authority: An Experimental View''. It was intended to measure the
willingness
of a participant to [[obedience|obey an authority who instructs the
participant
to do something that may conflict with the participant's personal
conscience.
== Method of the experiment ==
The method of one experiment was as follows:
Participants were recruited via a newspaper ad for work in a "study of memory" at Yale. The experiment was advertised as taking one hour, for which those responding would be paid $4.50. Participants were men between the ages of 20 and 50, excluding college and high school students.
The participant and an actor pretending to be another participant are told by the experimenter that they will be participating in an experiment to test the effectiveness of [[punishment]] on learning behavior.
Two slips of paper are handed to the participant and actor. The participant is led to believe that one of the slips said "learner" and one said "teacher" and that the participant is randomly given one of the slips. The participant slip says "teacher." The actor claims to have been assigned as "learner," so the participant is led to believe that the roles have been chosen randomly. In actuality both slips say "teacher," while the actor just misreports what is on his slip; no element of [[randomness]] is involved.
Both are then given a sample 45-[[volt]] [[electric shock]] from an apparatus attached to a chair into which the actor is strapped. The "teacher" is then given simple memory tasks to give to the "learner" and instructed to administer a shock by pressing a button each time the learner makes a mistake.
The "teacher" is then told that the voltage is to be raised by 15 volts after each mistake. In reality, there are no shocks being given to the actor the actor is merely acting. At "150 volts" the actor requests that the experiment ends. He is told by the experimenter: "The experiment requires that you continue. Please go on." The teacher participant continues, and the actor feigns at first greater discomfort, then considerable pain, and finally screams for the experiment to stop as the simulated shocks continue. If the teacher participant becomes reluctant, the teacher participant is instructed that the experimenter takes all responsibility for the results of the experiment and the safety of the learner, and that the experiment requires that the teacher participant continue.
== Results ==
Before the experiment was conducted Milgram polled fellow psychologists as to what the results would be. They unanimously believed that only a few [[sadist]]s would be prepared to give the maximum voltage.
In Milgram's first set of experiments, 65 percent of experimental participants administered the experiment's final 450-volt shock, though many were quite uncomfortable in doing so. No participant stopped before the 300-volt level. The experiment has been repeated by other psychologists around the world with similar results. Variations have been performed to test for variables in the experimental setup. For example, participants are much more likely to be obedient when the experimenter is physically present, as opposed to when the instructions are given over telephone.
[[Thomas Blass]] of the [[University of Maryland, College
Park|University of Maryland]] writes in ''[[Psychology Today]]''
(March/April [[2002]])
that he has collected results from repeats of the experiment done at
various
times since, in the [[United States|US]] and elsewhere, and found that
the
percentage of participants who are prepared to inflict fatal voltages
remains
remarkably constant, between 61% and 66%, regardless of time or
location.
<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[#External links and references|Blass,
2002]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
The full results were published in the ''Journal of Applied Social
Psychology''.
<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[#External links and references|Blass,
1999]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
== Reactions ==
The experiment raised questions about the [[ethics]] of scientific experimentation itself because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants (even though it could be said that this stress was brought on by their own free actions). Most modern scientists would consider the experiment unethical today, though it resulted in valuable insights into human psychology.
In Milgram's defense, given the choice between "positive," "neutral," and "negative," 84 percent of former participants contacted later rated their role in the experiments as a positive experience and 15 percent chose neutral. Many later wrote expressing thanks. Milgram repeatedly received offers of assistance and requests to join his staff from former participants.
Why so many former participants reported they were "glad" to have been involved despite the apparent levels of stress, one participant explained to Milgram in correspondence six years after he participated in the experiment, during the height of the [[Vietnam War]]:
:"While I was a subject [participant] in [[1964]], though I believed that I was hurting someone, I was totally unaware of why I was doing so. Few people ever realize when they are acting according to their own beliefs and when they are meekly submitting to authority. ... To permit myself to be drafted with the understanding that I am submitting to authority's demand to do something very wrong would make me frightened of myself. ... I am fully prepared to go to jail if I am not granted [[Conscientious Objector]] status. Indeed, it is the only course I could take to be faithful to what I believe. My only hope is that members of my board act equally according to their conscience..."
In contrast to the life-changing experience reported by some former participants, however, participants were not fully debriefed by modern standards and many seemed to never fully understand the nature of the experiment according to exit interviews.
Milgram summed up in the article "The Perils of Obedience" (Milgram [[1974]]), writing:
:"The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous import, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects' [participants'] strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects' [participants'] ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation."
The experiments began in July [[1961]], a year after the trial of [[Adolf Eichmann]] in [[Jerusalem]]. Milgram devised the experiment to answer the question "Could it be that Eichmann, and his million accomplices in the [[Holocaust]] were just following orders? Could we call them all accomplices?" (Milgram, 1974)
Milgram created a documentary film showing the experiment and its results, titled "Obedience". It is now very hard to find copies of it, but it can be very informative viewing. He also produced a series of five other films on social psychology with [[Harry From]], some of which touched on his experiments [http://www.stanleymilgram.com/films.html]. They may all be obtained from [http://www.mediasales.psu.edu/ Penn State Media Services].
== Variations ==
Milgram describes 19 variations of the experiment that he conducted in ''Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View''. In general, he found that when the immediacy of the victim was increased, compliance decreased, and when immediacy of the authority increased, compliance increased (Experiments 1-4). For instance, in one variation where participants received instructions from the experimenter only by telephone (Experiment 2), compliance greatly decreased; interestingly, a number of participants deceived the experimenter by ''pretending'' to continue the experiment. In the variation where immediacy of the "learner" was closest, participants had to physically hold the learner's arm onto a shock plate, which decreased compliance (Experiment 4). In this latter condition 30 percent still completed the experiment.
In Experiment 8, women were used as participants (all of Milgram's other experiments used only men). Obedience did not differ significantly, though they indicated experiencing higher levels of stress.
In one version (Experiment 10), Milgram rented a modest office in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]], [[Connecticut]], purporting to be run by a commercial entity called "Research Associates of Bridgeport" with no apparent connection to Yale, in order to eliminate the prestige of the university as a possible factor influencing participants' behavior. The results of this experiment did not significantly differ from those conducted at the Yale campus.
Milgram also combined the power of authority with that of
[[conformity (psychology)|conformity]]. In these experiments, the
participant was joined by one or two additional "teachers" (who were
actually actors, like the
"learner"). The behavior of the participants' apparent peers strongly
affected
results. When two additional teachers refused to comply (Experiment
17),
only four participants of 40 continued the experiment. In another
version,
(Experiment 18) the participant performed a subsidiary task with
another
"teacher" who complied fully. In this variation only three of 40 defied
the
experimenter. This variation is the reference of Peter Gabriel's
"Milgram's
37" [http://www.stanleymilgram.com/oldanswers.html].
== Parallels with the Experimenter and the Participant ==
A parallel to the experimental setup between the "learner" and the "teacher" can be said to exist between the participant and the experimenters themselves. The experimenter in many cases, as can be seen from TV-recordings of this type of experiment, actually inflicts psychological pain on the participants. In the case of the experimenters, the principle of scientific research itself is the "authority" which motivates them to these actions.
==See also==
* [[Asch conformity experiments]]
* [[Stanford prison experiment]]
* [[Mind control]]
* [[Depersonalization]]
* [[Point of no return]]
* [[Diffusion of responsibility]]